Preface xi
PART ONE
Foundations
CHAPTER 1
Science and Research 1
Alternatives to Social Research 2
How Science Works 6
Quantitative and Qualitative
Social Research 13
Steps in the Research Process 14
Why Conduct Social Research? 20
Conclusion 20
CHAPTER 2
Dimensions of Research 23
Dimensions of Research 23
Conclusion 47
CHAPTER 3
Theory and Research 49
What Is Theory? 50
Social Theory versus Ideology 50

The Parts of Social Theory 52
Aspects of Theory 58
The Dynamic Duo 76
Conclusion 77
CHAPTER 4
The Meanings of Methodology 79
The Three Approaches 80
Positivist Social Science 81
Interpretive Social Science 87
Critical Social Science 94
Feminist and Postmodem Research 102
Conclusion 104
CHAPTER 5
The Literature Review and Ethical
Concems 110
The Literature Review 110
Ethics in Social Research 129
Conclusion 146
PART TWO
Planning and Prepration
CHAPTER 6
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Designs 149
Triangulation 149
Qualitative and Quantitative Orientations
toward Research 151
Qualitative Design Issues 157
Quantitative Design Issues 160
Conclusion 174
CHAPTER 7
Qualitative and Quantitative
Measurement 179
Why Measure? 180
Quantitative and Qualitative
Measurement 181
Parts of the Measurement Process l 81
Reliability and Validity 188
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement 198
Index Construction 202
Scales 206
Conclusion 216
Qualitative and Quantitative
Sampling 219
Nonprobability Sampling 220
Probability Sampling 224
Conclusion 244
Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis
Experimental Research 246
Research Questions Appropriate for an
Experiment 247
A Short History of the Experiment in Socia
Research 248
Random Assignment 249
Experimental Design Logic 252
Internal and External Validity 259
Practical Considerations 267
Results of Experimental Research：Making Comparisons 267
A Word on Ethics 269
Conclusion 269
Survey Research 272
Research Questions Appropriate
lor a Survey 273
A History of Survey Research 273
The Logic of Survey Research 276
Constructing the Questionnaire 277
Types of Surveys： Advantages and
Disadvantages 299
Interviewing 304
The Ethical Survey 313
Conclusion 314
Nonreactive Research and Secondary
Analysis 320
Nonreactive Measurement 320
Content Analysis 322
Existing Statistics/Documents and Secondary
Analysis 331
Issues of Inference and Theory Testing 339
Conclusion 340
Analysis of Quantitative Data 343
Dealing with Data 344
Results with One Variable 346
Results with Two Variables 353
More than Two Variables 362
Inferential Statistics 370
Conclusion 374
PART FOUR
Qualitative Co!lemon and Analysis
CHAPTER 13
Field Research 378
Research Questions Appropriate for
Field Research 379
A Short History of Field Research 379
The Logic of Field Research 383
Choosing a Site and Gaining Access 385
Relations in the Field 392
Observing and Collecting Data 396
The Field Research Interview 406
Leaving the Field 411
Ethical Dilemmas of Field Research 412
Conclusion 414
CHAPTER 14
Historical-Comparative Research 418
A Short History of Historical-Comparative
Research 419
Research Questions Appropriate for Historical-
Comparative Research 419
The Logic of Historical-Comparative
Research 420
Steps in a Historical-Comparative Research
Project 428
Data and Evidence in Historical
Context 430
Comparative Research 437
Equivalence in Historical-Comparative
Research 449
Ethics 452
Conclusion 453
CHAPTER 15
Analysis of Qualitative Data 457
Comparing Methods of Data
Analysis 458
Coding and Concept Formation 459
Analytic Strategies for Qualitative
Data 466
Other Techniques 480
Conclusion 488
PART FIVE
Communicating With Othets
CHAPTER 16
Writing the Research Report and the
Politics of Social Research 490
The Research Report 491
The Politics of Social Research 504
Objectivity and Value Freedom， 516
Conclusion 518
Appendixes
APPENDIX A
American Sociological Association Code
of Ethics 521
APPENDIX B
Table of Randomly Selected Five-Digit
Numbers 535
APPENDIX C
Sample of Data Archives and Resources
for Secondary Analysis 537
Bibliography 548
Name Index 552
Subject Index 554
APPENDIX D
Measurement Theory and Specialized
Techniques for Index and Scale
Construction 539
APPENDIX E
Evaluation Research 543
Bibliography 548
Name Index 552
Subject Index 554